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The 7 Best Road Trips to Take This Summer

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Over the last three decades, I’ve driven all across the country, sometimes flying in and renting a car, more often just driving my Roadtrek camper van from my Indiana home. During those road trips, I’ve also visited every national park in the contiguous U.S. Whenever I’m home too long or the news gets too dire, I start to feel that itch to hit the open road.

Before planning any road trip, I recommend buying a Rand McNally road atlas. It will help you navigate whenyou no longer have cell service. Just like you shouldn’t leave your route to Google Maps, you shouldn’t leave your summer road trip playlist to Spotify. I try to at least pick a few songs or artists, or even an audiobook, connected to my destination. Case in point: I can’t drive through Texas without listening to hometown heroes the Old 97’s or the Vandoliers. You can practically smell bluebonnets and the dregs of a discarded Lone Star beer bottle with every song.

When compiling this list, I attempted to hit as many geographical regions of the the U.S. as possible, but focused most of the attention on northern or higher elevation areas where the summer heat may not be as brutal.  I also chose these road trips based on their proximity to adventure. And with a few exceptions, I’ve personally roadtripped through each of these destinations myself.

Remember, when things go wrong on the road, as they inevitably will, just tell yourself that it’s just going to make for a great story. It always does for me.

Here are my top recommendations for the best summer road trips in the U.S.

Communing With Nature: Redwoods to Crater Lake

(Photo: Robert Annis)

Distance: 456 miles
Potential adventures: Hiking, photography, road cycling
Perfect road-trip playlist song: California Stars by Wilco

A couple of years ago, I did a version of this road trip in Winnebago’s prototype electric RV, and it was incredible. Perhaps my biggest regret was that I spent the entire article talking about the RV and not the scenery I was experiencing.

Start in Redwood National and State Parks, where the smell of saltwater, mountain air, and redwood trees will linger in your nose and remain in your memories forever. Similar to hiking its sister park Sequoia, walking through millennia-old redwood groves inspires an almost religious connection to the natural world. The park offers more than 200 miles of trails for every skill level—from experienced hikers gaining 3,000 feet of elevation to those who need accessible, paved or gravel paths.

From there, take CA 299 east to Whiskeytown National Recreation Area, which still bears scars from the Carr Fire in 2018. When I visited, some life had returned to the hillside, but it remained a sobering reminder on the deadly hazards of climate change. Despite this, there was plenty of outdoor adventure to be had, such as hiking or biking dozens of miles of trails, checking out multiple gorgeous waterfalls, or swimming in the eponymous lake.

Taking CA 44 further east to Lassen Volcanic National Park, you’ll see even more charred trees, reminders of the 2021 Dixie Fire that damaged nearly 70 percent of the park. Given its elevation (more than 10,000 feet at its highest), Lassen Volcanic finds itself buried underneath snow for most of the year. Late July through September is the perfect time to visit, when most of the trails can be hiked without snowshoes. The half-mile Sulphur Works and 2.7-mile Bumpass Hell trails with their steam vents, bubbling pools, and mud pots echo Yellowstone’s volcanic features.


Next, head north to Shasta-Trinity National Forest, which encompasses Mt. Shasta, California’s fifth-largest peak. I only spent an afternoon on the trails there, and were I to do it over again, I would have spent multiple days exploring the trails through seemingly endless fir and pine forests. The road between Mt. Shasta—which is actually a stratovolcano—and Crater Lake is known as the Volcanic Scenic Legacy Byway, with other highlights including Burney Mountain and Medicine Lake Volcano. This is yet another gorgeous road, so take your time heading further north to Crater Lake National Park.

Whenever I think of the color blue, I see Crater Lake’s impossibly perfect waters in my mind. I hiked up the short, but steep Watchman Peak Trail, to gaze upon the entirety of Crater Lake National Park’s namesake attraction.

The park itself isn’t massive, so visitors can knock out the highlights in a day or two. Be sure to drive or, even better, bike the length of the 33-mile Rim Road with its 30 scenic vistas. The road does have some elevation changes, so be ready to climb or bring an e-bike.

If you love fly fishing, continue southwest to Grants Pass, located on the world-famous Rogue River. I’d recommend visiting in late summer between August and September when the summer steelhead run is in full swing.

(Great) Lake Life: Indiana Dunes to Apostle Islands

(Photo: Robert Annis)

Miles: 971
Potential activities: Hiking, fly fishing, mountain biking, paddling
Perfect road-trip playlist song: Last Week by the Michigan Rattlers

As a native Midwesterner, I’ve long claimed that Michigan and Wisconsin are the two most-underrated states in the nation for outdoor adventure. Over the years, I’ve traveled extensively within the area, hiking and biking nearly endless rolling hills covered in thick birch, pine, and oak forests. I’ve paddled the Great Lakes and fly-fished some of the world’s most-renowned trout rivers. Visitors can find thousands of miles of gorgeous shoreline, much of which they may have all to themselves.

This road trip starts at Indiana Dunes National Park, which offers more than 11 miles of Lake Michigan shoreline. Most visitors prefer to lounge on the beach, but Indiana Dunes also boasts a staggering amount of biodiverse ecosystems in a relatively small, 15,000-acre footprint. More than 1,000 wildly different plant species essentially live side-by-side, including a rare ethereal white plant called the ghost pipe and multiple species of carnivorous plants.

Crossing north into Michigan, fly fishers can stop in either Grand Rapids, to hopefully catch smallies and pike, or head further north to the famous Pere Marquette River to fish for wild brook and rainbow trout. (Visit Werkman Outfitters or 1884 Fly Shop for the latest river conditions and news on what’s currently hatching.) You’ll find plenty of free or low-cost spots to camp along the Pere Marquette in the Manistee National Forest (I’d suggest Claybanks Campground if you’re wading and Sulak Campground if you’re in a boat), though you may want to spring for a hotel in Grand Rapids to enjoy the multitude of restaurants and bars after you get off the river.

Driving further north to Sleeping Bear Dunes and Pictured Rocks National Lakeshores, the road hugs Lake Michigan to the west and later, after crossing Mackinac Bridge, Lake Superior to the north. They’re both stunning bodies of water, but try to keep your eyes on the highway. Driving across Mackinac Bridge on a windy day requires nerves of steel. (I swear the bridge was swinging the last time I crossed it.) Both national lakeshores have some great hiking, but the most incredible scenery is best seen via the water. Bringing or renting a sea kayak for an afternoon is a must.

From Pictured Rocks, head west. The most fun I’ve ever had on a mountain bike was in Copper Harbor, thanks to more than 50 miles of fun wooden features and flowy singletrack. Copper Harbor is also the entryway to Isle Royale National Park, although you’ll have to ditch your vehicle for a ferry to get there. I’d recommend at least overnighting on the island and staying even longer, if you’re able.

This itinerary ends at Apostle Islands National Lakeshore in Wisconsin, another spot where getting on the water is a must. Paddlers can even camp on several of the islands. Mountain bikers should definitely check out the 17 miles of singletrack at Mount Ashwabay. Nearby, Big Top Chautauqua brings in artists like Iron and Wine and Old Crow Medicine Show to perform under a massive circus tent. (Steve Earle rocked out during my most recent visit.)

The Ultimate Outdoor Paradise: Glacier National Park to Stanley, Idaho

(Photo: Robert Annis )

Miles: 794
Potential activities: Hiking, mountain biking, paddling, fly fishing
Perfect road-trip playlist song: Wild Montana Skies by John Denver

You could take the entire summer traversing this route and still barely scratch the surface of what this nearly 800-mile slice of paradise from Glacier National Park to Stanley, Idaho, offers. No matter what outdoor activity you love, you’ll find it here.

Yellowstone or Glacier will get busy during the summer high season, so enter the parks early or later in the day, when the bulk of the crowds have dissipated. Start in Glacier, which, for me at least, may be the most beautiful place in the world. Spend a morning kayaking Lake McDonald; if you’re lucky, the weather will allow an almost glass-like reflection on the blue water that’s ideal for frame-worthy photos.

Going to the Sun Road reopens by July each year. Take it to the lesser-traveled east side of the park for some of the best hiking opportunities. Finish your Glacier excursion with a fly fishing trip down the middle fork of the Flathead River, one of the best— and most picturesque—spots in the country for cutthroats and rainbows.

Heading south, Helena is a nice stopover between Glacier and Yellowstone, offering some pretty good mountain biking in its own right. Helena may have started out as a gold town, but it’s now a Silver-Level IMBA Ride Center, with more than 75 miles of trails spread around town.

Driving further south, get into Yellowstone early in the morning to see Grand Prismatic Spring boil and Old Faithful erupt, then hit the road again. Your best shot at seeing a grizzly or wolf is heading to Lamar Valley. Plenty of cars will be parked alongside the road with people looking into the hills with spotting scopes. If crowds clog the trails, Shoshone and Bridger-Teton National Forests have lots of great hikes with practically no one else around.

Further south is on one of the most breathtaking roads in America, the John D. Rockefeller Jr. Memorial Parkway, and Grand Teton may be one of the most photogenic mountains in the world. Upper Teton View in Bridger-Teton National Forest has free dispersed campsites overlooking the namesake mountains. It’s the perfect place to unwind after a day on the trails and enjoy a cocktail or three.

After spending a day or two in and out of the park, head west, crossing into Idaho. If you’re fascinated by Yellowstone’s geology, then spend a couple of hours exploring Craters of the Moon National Monument. End the road trip in Stanley, Idaho. It’s a cool, under-the-radar town that puts you in the middle of all the surrounding outdoor action. Plan to spend two or three days there, with at least one earmarked for fly fishing the Salmon River. I recommend hiring a guide with The River Company, who helped me hook into tons of rainbow-cutthroat hybrids.

Keep in mind: This is grizzly country, so have bear spray ready and make a lot of noise as you walk.

Seeing Colors: South Dakota’s Badlands to Black Hills

(Photo: Robert Annis)

Miles: 103 miles
Potential activities: Hiking, photography, trail riding
Perfect audiobook: Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee by Dee Brown

I didn’t know what to expect the first time I rolled through South Dakota in 2020, but after spending a couple of weeks exploring it and its sibling state to the north, I drove away impressed. So much so I’ve been back multiple times in the years since.

Start in Badlands National Park, preferably during sunrise or sunset. Watch how the changing light illuminates and reflects on the various colors of layered sandstone. Driving the loop road through the park takes around two hours with stops at the overlooks, each giving a unique and often expansive view of the rock formations. If you’re planning to hike, dedicate two days to explore the park. During summer, sunscreen and a shady hat are a must for the Badlands, where you won’t find too many trees on the trails.

From the Badlands, head west. Unless you’re an amateur spelunker or otherwise fascinated with caves, dedicate half a day to Wind Cave National Park, springing for one of the cave tours. I recommend the basic 75-minute tour, which covers the natural highlights and boxwork formations inside the cave, as well as the historical significance of the cave to the Lakota people. Be sure to get your tickets as early as possible, as they often sell out during the summer high season.

After the tour, head toward neighboring Custer State Park. This gorgeous, well-maintained park is on par with many national parks, offering lots of great hiking and biking options. Beginning in Deadwood, the 109-mile George S. Mickelson Trail runs through the heart of Custer State Park, terminating in Edgemont, passing over more than 100 converted railroad trestles and through 4 tunnels. If you didn’t bring a bike, the park offers several heart-racing hiking trails (both metaphorically and literally). Both Cathedral Spires and Black Elk Peak offer beautiful views and opportunities to hop into the refreshing Sylvan Lake.


Throughout its 1.2 million acres, Black Hills National Forest offers more than 450 miles of hiking trails, a bit of singletrack in Spearfish, and fun times swimming or paddling in the lakes and reservoirs. The scenery surrounding the roads is beautiful, but the tarmac can get a bit twisty; there’s a reason why thousands of bikers flock to Sturgis each year.

If you decide to visit Mount Rushmore, be sure to earmark time for the Crazy Horse Memorial as well. The two manmade monoliths are great contrasts to one another, allowing you and your traveling companions to discuss the great and not-so-great aspects of our nation’s history.

I listened to Dee Brown’s sobering “Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee” while driving through the state. Hearing the atrocities that occurred on these grounds gave me a much deeper understanding of both the landscape and the people who lived there years ago.

Fly High: Pisgah National Forest to Hot Springs, North Carolina

(Photo: Fishing Robert Annis )

Miles: 97 miles
Potential activities: Hiking, fly fishing, gravel, road, and mountain biking
Perfect road-trip playlist song: The Carolinian by Chatham County Line

This trip traversing North Carolina’s most scenic national forests and perhaps the best trout water east of the Mississippi is a must for every adventurer with a bike and a fly rod.

Start in Pisgah National Forest, which boasts some of the most challenging and fun singletrack you’ll find east of the Mississippi. Tucked away in the seemingly endless pine forests, trails can be gnarly and pretty technical, but always fun. I have roughly the same number of smiles and scars to remember from years of riding there. Be sure to earmark at least a day for the fast and flowy DuPont State Forest trails nearby.

Head southwest to Haywood County, which got hit hard by Hurricane Helene last fall, but has made a remarkable comeback in the months since. When I was here in the spring, ongoing highway repairs heading in and out of Haywood slowed traffic to a crawl in places. Try to time your travel to early in the morning or at night in order to avoid the traffic jams.

Maggie Valley and the surrounding towns are filled with mom-and-pop campgrounds and motels that need visitors’ cash to pay for all the repairs. What do they offer in return? Trout, and lots of them. (Be sure to buy a license, as the Carolina game wardens do not mess around.) The Pigeon River and both Jonathan and Richland Creeks get stocked by the state of North Carolina in the spring, and the trout are still hitting mop flies and woolie buggers in the summer. (Maggie Valley Fly Shop can give you the current intel.)

In nearby Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Cataloochee Creek flows through a picturesque valley and is filled with skittish wild brookies. Catching one of these native little fish felt as momentous as catching dozens the day before on the Pigeon.

From there, head north on NC 209 to Hot Springs, another spot recovering from last year’s hurricane. My cycling team held our training camp in this tiny Tarheel town for more than a decade, so I can assure you both the road and gravel riding here are amazing. The twisty mountain roads surrounding the town will make you earn the super-fun descents. The gravel climb up 4,600-foot Max Patch is challenging, but doable for most riders; beware the backside descent, which can be treacherous in places. Hot Springs is a major Appalachian Trail hub, with lots of other great hiking options nearby. As a bonus, the French Broad River runs through Hot Springs, so after you get back from your epic ride, you can unwind in the cool water while getting your line wet.

I Cannot Tell a Lie; I love Washington State: North Cascades to Olympic

(Photo: Robert Annis)

Miles: 342 miles
Potential activities: Hiking, fly fishing, sea kayaking, wildlife viewing, road cycling
Perfect audiobook: Desolation Angels by Jack Kerouac

Begin your drive at North Cascades National Park. Due to its northern location, it’s not as heavily traveled as the two other national parks in the state, and locals rightfully view it and the surrounding national forest as their backyard. Nearly every SUV you see will be loaded with kayaks or mountain bikes on top.

My favorite day-hike in the park, the Cascade Pass Trail, winds upward through fir and cedar forest to views of multiple peaks and glaciers. Neighboring Ross Lake National Recreational Area is a perfect spot for casual paddling and swimming. If you have at least three days for a backcountry adventure, visit Desolation Peak in the northeast corner of the park, where famed beat writer Jack Kerouac served as a fire lookout in 1956.

Leaving North Cascades, keep an eye out for some famous fly-fishing rivers during the remainder of the road trip. You may come across the Yakima River, known for salmon and trout, and the Skagit and Hoh Rivers, that offer great steelhead fishing. The Trout Routes app should help you find access points and fly shops along the way.

Nearly all the roads in Mount Rainier National Park have opened by early July. Road cyclists flock to the park to challenge themselves on the steep upward roads. Visitors will find tons of incredible hiking options throughout the park, with a wide variety of mileage and difficulty levels. If you have time after leaving the park, detour down to Mount St. Helens Volcanic Monument, where one of the most violent volcanic eruptions in U.S. history occurred in 1980.

From Mout Rainier, head northwest. The problem with Olympic National Park is there’s almost too much to do. Spanning nearly a million acres, visitors can be easily overwhelmed with the number of hiking options. Hurricane Ridge and Hoh Rain Forest are two of the more popular recreation areas, but that often leads to congestion and lack of parking. Queets and Quinault Rain Forests have a similar feel to Hoh, but far fewer visitors. If you’re looking for a backcountry adventure, Sol Duc Valley and Deer Park are great jumping-off points.

Adventure Powered by Lobster: White Mountains to Hidden Maine Ponds

(Photo: Robert Annis)

Miles: 384 miles
Potential activities: Hiking, fly fishing, kayaking, stargazing, eating lobster
Perfect road-trip playlist song: Lost Coastlines by Okkervil River

Full of beech and maple forests, gorgeous hillsides, and mountain-fed lakes, White Mountain National Forest is a terrific starting point for this New Hampshire to Maine road trip. Two of the shortest trails have some of the best views; a 1.5-mile hike will take you to New Hampshire’s tallest waterfall, Arethusa Falls, while a somewhat steep 3-mile hike leads you to Lonesome Lake, which lives up to its name.


From there, head northeast to Acadia National Park. Start your day early with a drive up Cadillac Summit Road to catch the sunrise. This has become such a popular activity over the years that a $6 parking pass is required during the high season. You may second-guess yourself when your alarm goes off at 3:30 am, but the view is worth it. If you get there pretty early, be sure to bring a headlamp to keep from tripping over a rock or going over a ledge.

Acadia has 45 miles of gravel carriage roads perfect for cycling and another 158 miles of hiking trails. Several outfitters rent bikes if you don’t bring your own. For 1.5 hours before and after low tide, you can walk about a mile-long sand bar from Bar Harbor to Bar Island. This is one of the more popular activities in the park, and you’ll likely be surrounded by other walkers. When both the weather and sea are cooperating, kayak around Bar Island and the bits of land just off the coast of Bar Harbor. Be sure to fuel your activities with plenty of fresh blueberries and lobster, which you can find nearly everywhere you go.

If Acadia feels too crowded, try spending a day or two in Camden Hills State Park. The bay-front park has around 20 trails, nearly all of which are shorter thant two miles.

Spicer Pond, about 45 minutes west of Portland, is filled with lots of fun-sized native brookies. When you think of stereotypical Maine wilderness, this relatively tiny body of water is likely what you see in your mind. You’re almost guaranteed to have the pond, or a neighboring one just like it, to yourself. If you need a guide, Jake Ratcliff with Cast and Call Maine can help you out.

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Robert Annis, a frequent Outside contributor, spends more time on the road than the average long-haul trucker. When not behind the wheel of his beloved Roadtrek camper van singing along to Son Volt’s classic Trace album, he can be found either hip-deep in the closest trout stream or your town’s cheapest dive bar.

(Photo: Courtesy of Robert Annis)



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Pursuit of entertainment or self-expression? Research on adventure tourism

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Data collection

The study focused on domestic and foreign tourists aged 18 and above participating in rafting at Antalya Köprülü Canyon. The questionnaires were applied immediately after rafting in-person, and it was thought that the tourists’ experiences were reflected. In order to accurately measure tourist motivations, the literature was reviewed and scales were selected from the literature. In the process of selecting the scales, previously experienced ready-made scales were used, however, the scales were preferred from ready-made scales with high values in terms of validity and reliability. The aim here is to measure the constructs measured in the study in the most reliable way and in a way that can be distinguished from other constructs. For this purpose, scales with high Cronbach α or composite reliability values and AVE (average variance extracted) values were preferred. Then the convenience sampling method was used as the sampling method because there was no random selection. It is a statistical fact that the convenience sampling method does not represent the whole population because it is not random. However, it is easier to apply than random sampling in terms of reaching individuals with new experiences. In addition, as a result of studies that can be carried out in other countries or regions, although it is not a random sample, new literature becomes more debatable and converges to a scientific reality with the literature obtained with the convenience sampling method together with the developing literature.

Participants voluntarily participated in the survey after the rafting experience. Thus, it can be stated that the participants’ responses to the questionnaire were not influenced by any incentives. This situation causes the participants’ views on the subject to be more sincere. The questionnaires were collected in 2021. From 327 questionnaires, 31 were excluded for incomplete data, leaving 296 for analysis. The demographics included 68.1% Russian, 21.5% EU citizens, 9.5% Turkish, and 1% from other nationalities, reflecting general tourism trends in Turkey as reported by the World Travel and Tourism Council (2021). According to the World Travel and Tourism Council (2021) report, 12% of those who came to Turkey in 2019 were Russian, and 8% were German tourists, while in 2020, this rate was 13% for Russians and 7% for Bulgaria, Germany and Ukraine. In this case, it is predicted that the data and results obtained from the target audience will provide correct inferences. Therefore, bias in the study poses as much risk as bias that can occur in real life.

Although 50% of the participants have visited Antalya before, the rate of those who have visited Köprülü Canyon before is 24.3%. In this case, it can be said that individuals who have visited before have returned home without rafting in Köprülü Canyon. The rate of those who have rafted before is 29.7%. The fact that the rates of those who have visited Köprülü Canyon and those who have rafted are close may indicate that individuals tend to do it again after the first experience. While 62.4% of the participants were female, 37.6% were male. In this case, it can be stated that women are more oriented towards adventure tourism. 12.2% of the participants are high school graduates, 21.3% are associate degree graduates, 57.4% are bachelor’s degree graduates, and 9.1% are master’s and doctorate graduates. The average age of the participants was 33.36, while the median was 33.

Measures

Five-point Likert-type scales assessed all constructs. The scales covered “experiencing nature” (Perić et al., 2019), “escape” (Carvache-Franco et al., 2019), and “joy” (Pestana et al., 2020). The “WOM” influence (Sirakaya-Turk et al., 2015) and “self-image congruence” (Sirgy et al., 1997) were also measured, along with “revisit intention” (Zhang et al., 2018).

Data analysis and results

The data analysis validated the measurement model and evaluated relationships between the constructs.

Measurement model

The confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) indicated a satisfactory fit, with chi-square/df at 2.81, CFI at 0.92, SRMR at 0.059, and RMSEA at 0.078 (Hu and Bentler, 1999), as detailed in Table 1.

Table 1 Confirmatory factor analysis results.

Construct validity was confirmed, with convergent and discriminant validity assessed and meeting established thresholds (Hair et al., 2014) as shown in Table 2.

Table 2 The results of the inter-construct correlations and AVE value.

According to Tables 1 and 2, the AVE values are greater than 0.50 and the correlation between the variables. Therefore, convergent and discriminant validity is provided. After this stage of the analysis, common method bias (CMB) or common method variance (CMV) was examined. According to Podsakoff et al. (2003), CMB analysis refers to the bias that emerges from external factors on the data set and occurs when the majority of the variance is explained by a single factor (Podsakoff et al., 2003; Gaskin and Lim, 2016). To measure whether the majority of the variance was gathered under a single factor, the single factor Harman test was performed, and the explained variance rate was calculated as 43%. Since the single factor Harman test is a weak analysis, CMB was re-examined using the Controlling for the effects of an unmeasured latent methods factor analysis suggested by Podsakoff et al. (2003), and each regression path was calculated as 0.64, and the explained variance rate was found to be 41%. Since CMB does not exceed 50% (Eichhorn, 2014: p. 8), it can be said that CMB does not exist or is insignificant (Büyükdağ and Kitapci, 2021).

Structural model

The structural model’s evaluation produced the following results: chi-square/df value at 2.81, CFI value at 0.92, SRMR value at 0.059, and RMSEA value at 0.078. These indices satisfy the criteria set by Hu and Bentler (1999), indicating a good fit between the theoretical model and the observed data.

Table 3 shows that push factors significantly and positively influence self-image congruence (β = 0.66), WOM (β = 0.55), and revisit intention (β = 0.32). Self-image congruity also significantly enhances WOM (β = 0.35) and revisit intention (β = 0.30), while WOM positively impacts revisit intention (β = 0.28). The model explains 44% of the variance in self-image congruity, 68% in WOM, and 66% in revisit intention (Fig. 2).

Table 3 Result of the SEM.
Fig. 2: Structural model with standardized path coefficients.

This figure shows the tested structural model with standardized regression weights, reflecting direct and indirect effects among variables. This figure illustrates the structural model with standardized path coefficients, examining the relationships between push factors, self-image congruity, revisit intention, and word-of-mouth. The push factors are measured through three dimensions: experience nature, escape, and joy. The arrows represent the hypothesized paths, and the numerical values indicate the standardized regression weights. The model shows that push factors significantly influence self-image congruity, revisit intention, and word-of-mouth, both directly and indirectly.

Multi-group structural equation modeling (SEM) and analysis results

Multi-group structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to compare the regression paths between two variables based on socio-demographic and field-specific characteristics. Various studies have utilized this approach: Yada et al. (2018) to understand teachers’ attitudes and self-efficacy, Al-Swidi and Al Yahya (2017) to examine educational intention and work behavior differences by gender, and Babin et al. (2016), Huang and Ge (2019), Murray et al. (2017), and Aka and Buyukdag (2021) to analyze factors such as culture, household characteristics, store design, and marital status. In this study, multi-group SEM was applied to explore the effects of rafting experience (first-time vs. repeated) and gender (female vs. male model).

According to the multi-group SEM related to rafting experience, the model showed good fit indices with a chi-square/df value of 2.19, a CFI of 0.90, an RMSEA of 0.064, a GFI of 0.79, and an AGFI of 0.73. The comparative analysis between unconstrained and constrained models revealed a chi-square difference of 35.06 and a df difference of 25, indicating no significant variation between the effects of rafting experiences (p = 0.087). Consequently, the research model is applicable to both first-time and repeated rafters. The significance of each path’s rafting experience was further analyzed and is detailed in Table 4.

Table 4 Multi-group SEM results.

According to the multi-group structural equation modeling focused on gender, the model demonstrated good fit indices with a chi-square/df value of 2.17, a CFI of 0.90, an RMSEA of 0.063, a GFI of 0.79, and an AGFI of 0.73. This suggests that the multi-group SEM adequately represents the gender-based differences in the data. Comparative analysis between unconstrained and constrained models showed a chi-square difference of 24.83 and a df difference of 25, indicating no significant variance in gender effects (p = 0.472). Therefore, the research model is equally applicable to both female and male categories. Further analysis was conducted to determine if significant differences exist in local paths based on gender, with detailed results presented in Table 4.

Table 4 shows that push factors affect self-congruence differently for first-time versus repeated rafters. Rafting experience moderates how these factors influence self-image congruence, with a more pronounced effect on first-timers. While push factors significantly impact WOM for both groups, the effect is stronger for newcomers, but rafting experience doesn’t moderate this relationship. Similarly, push factors notably influence revisit intention for first-time rafters, but less so for experienced rafters, where experience doesn’t act as a moderator (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3: Multi-group comparison by visit frequency and gender.

This figure illustrates differences in structural paths across first-time and repeat visitors, as well as male and female participants, using varying line styles. This figure presents the multi-group analysis results based on visit frequency (first-time vs. repeated) and gender (female vs. male). The structural paths between push factors, self-image congruity, revisit intention, and word-of-mouth are illustrated with different line styles. Solid lines represent first-time visitors, dotted lines indicate repeat visitors, dash-dot lines show female participants, and dashed lines represent male participants. Path coefficients are shown along each arrow. The figure highlights how these variables interact differently across groups, revealing variations in motivational and behavioral responses based on experience and gender.

The influence of self-congruence on WOM is significant for both novice and seasoned rafters, more so for the latter. This suggests that rafters with prior experience, and with higher self-image congruity, are likelier to share their experiences. Self-congruence significantly affects intention to revisit among experienced rafters, but not for newcomers. However, rafting experience does not moderate these relationships in either case.

The impact of WOM on revisit intention was significant for first-time rafters but not for repeat rafters, with rafting experience not moderating this relationship. Table 4 shows variance differences between these groups. For first-timers, the explained variance is 51%, while only 26.9% for repeat rafters. For WOM, the variance is 70.5% for first-time users and 66.5% for repeat rafters. Regarding revisit intention, the variance is 65.3% for novices and slightly higher at 66.1% for experienced rafters.

The model showed no significant gender-based moderating effects, but coefficients highlight important relationship nuances. Both genders experience a positive, significant effect of push factors on self-image congruence, with males showing a higher coefficient. The impact of push factors on WOM is significant for both, yet stronger for males. Females, however, demonstrate a greater influence of push factors on revisit intention. The effects of self-congruence on WOM are similar across genders. Males exhibit a more substantial influence of self-image congruence on revisit intention. WOM’s impact on revisit intention is marginally higher in males. While gender doesn’t significantly moderate these paths, the data suggest males typically have higher values in consumer experiences involving adventure and risk-taking.

Self-congruence significantly influences WOM for both first-time and repeat rafters, more so for the latter. This suggests experienced rafters, likely with higher self-image congruity, are more prone to sharing their experiences. Self-congruence also impacts revisit intention significantly among experienced rafters, but less for novices. In both cases, rafting experience does not moderate these relationships.

The study shows gender differences in variance rates for self-image congruity, WOM, and revisit intention. Self-image congruity explains 49.3% of the variance in males and 38% in females. For WOM, the variance is 81.6% in males and 57.7% in females. Regarding revisit intention, males have a variance rate of 68.1% compared to 65.7% in females. These results imply that self-image congruence is more prominent in male first-time rafters, who also tend to discuss their adventurous experiences more, indicating higher communication about risk-taking and adventure among males.

Study 2

A multiple correspondence analysis examined relationships between push factors, self-image congruence, and demographics in adventure tourism for greater insight into consumer behavior dynamics.

Multiple correspondence analysis

Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) is a robust multivariate technique used to examine relationships among nominal data. This method allows researchers to analyze data, interpret findings, and develop perceptual maps, facilitating a deeper understanding of the data structure (Hair et al., 2010; Hair et al., 2014). In this study, MCA was employed to analyze the relationships between individuals’ perceptions of push factors, self-image congruence, WOM, and revisit intentions, alongside demographic or social factors such as gender, nationality, rafting experience, and visiting status. The objective was to conduct in-depth research and derive meaningful inferences. The graphical representation from the Multiple Correspondence Analysis is provided in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4: Joint plot of category points from correspondence analysis.

This plot visualizes the associations between categorical variables, such as nationality, gender, experience, loyalty, and satisfaction. Spatial proximity indicates stronger relationships. This joint plot of category points illustrates the relationships among categorical variables based on their positions along two dimensions extracted through correspondence analysis. The plot visualizes associations between destination-related experiences (e.g., visit status, experiential satisfaction, loyalty), demographic variables (e.g., nationality, gender), and motivational/behavioral outcomes (e.g., push/pull factors, revisit intention, WOM). For example, high revisit intention, high congruity, and high WOM cluster on the right side of Dimension 1, while variables like low satisfaction and low loyalty appear on the left. The spatial proximity between categories indicates stronger associations.

According to the multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) results, repeat visitors to Köprülü Canyon are predominantly Turkish, male, and have prior visits to Antalya and rafting experience. These individuals are notably influenced by push and pull factors and demonstrate high self-image congruity, WOM, loyalty, and satisfaction, indicating a strong intention to revisit. Conversely, first-time visitors to Antalya and Köprülü Canyon are primarily Russian and female tourists, characterized by their pursuit of excitement, unique experiences, and experiential pleasure in adventure and risk-taking activities. Despite showing a high intention to revisit, the likelihood of Russian and female tourists returning is relatively low. This pattern suggests that while tourists enjoy adventure tourism as part of their sea, sun, and sand vacation, it is not the primary purpose of their visit. The findings imply that although tourists have significant rafting experiences and entertainment, they are more inclined to explore different geographical regions rather than revisit the same location. Consequently, it is expected that these tourists will likely choose alternative destinations for their next vacation.

Therefore, emphasizing promotions targeting first-time visitors in rafting or adventure tourism is anticipated to yield significant benefits. Consequently, catering to the preferences of Russian and female tourists with diverse adventure and risk-taking tourism options is projected to create a vital market segment. However, the analysis indicates that European tourists exhibit lower levels of self-image congruity, WOM, revisit intention, and satisfaction with push and pull factors related to rafting. As such, understanding the specific expectations of tourists from the European Union and offering varied tourism alternatives could become a significant source of revenue. Addressing these preferences may lead to enhanced tourist experiences and increased revisit rates.



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